Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: In 1925, physicist W. Pauli proposed a principle regarding the position and distribution of electrons in different energy levels of an atom, which is recognized as Pauli’s …
Hund’s Rule: The rule for the distribution of electrons in degenerate orbitals (orbitals having the same energy level) based on the magnetic energy values of electrons was proposed by the …
Electronic Configuration of Atoms: The number of electrons in an atom is a distinct property, and its configuration provides a clear understanding of the characteristics of that atom. In accordance …
Derivation of Radius, Velocity, and Energy Equations for the n-th Orbit of Hydrogen and Hydrogen-like Atoms 1. Determination of the Radius of the n-th Orbit: Let the total positive charge …
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: From Bohr’s atomic model, we know that an electron is a particle with a tiny mass revolving in a circular path, which remains in a specific energy …
De Broglie’s Equation or the Concept of Dual Nature of Particles: In 1924, de Broglie proposed an equation to explain the particle and wave nature of electrons by combining Max …
Spin Quantum Number: Scientists Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit revealed that every electron, while revolving around the nucleus, continuously spins like a top around its own axis, either in a clockwise or …
Magnetic Quantum Number The negatively charged electrons revolve around the positively charged nucleus, which creates an electric field inside the atom. Due to the influence of this electric field, a …
Azimuthal Quantum Number (𝒍) Subsidiary Quantum Number According to Sommerfeld, to facilitate the revolution of electrons within an atom, each principal energy level is subdivided into a specific number of …
Principal Quantum Number (n) According to Bohr’s atomic model, electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in certain designated circular paths of fixed energy. These paths are known as …